Economic impact of health care reform Term Paper

Economic impact of health care reform - Term Paper Example ertaken major reforms in healthcare through the passing of bills such as the healthcare reform bill in the president Obama’s administration (Scarborough, 2010). However, such major steps can be argued as to have major positive and negative impacts on the economy at large especially due to the fact that this sector has been noted as to account for a the highest government expenditure as compared to other sectors. This essay is a critical evaluation of the economic impacts of the healthcare reform bill. The US has been classified as one of the developed countries in the world where health care contributes to a significant number of approximately 65% of all personal bankruptcy cases, which are reported (Scarborough, 2010). It is also known to spend much of its financial resources in providing healthcare for its citizens. However, reports show that the management of these resources has been slowed down in the past due to the lack of proper healthcare policies, which would ensure that every individual is covered by a medical insurance policy, in order to facilitate them with proper treatment in cases of sickness and accidents as well as lack of proper guidelines to control insurers from exploiting their clients. Due to this, insurance policy holders find themselves in situations whereby they are forced to dig deeper from their pockets so as to pay for the hospital bills after the insurers pay for small portions instead of clearing all the expenses incurred (Scarborough, 2010). This ha s resulted to people refraining from acquiring treatment due to lack of finances to take care of the expensive care provided to them. In fact, most of the people have accumulated a lot of debts and from research it is evident that the highest percentage in this group does not continue to seek further medical treatment out of fear that debts would increase. However, the coming of President Obama into power renewed hope and anticipation among the American communities due to his promise of

Effects of Drugs on Neurotransmission Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Effects of Drugs on Neurotransmission - Essay Example This means that alteration of the conditions that are favorable for cells to be alive leads to the death of the organelles. The various systems, therefore, have to ensure that the internal conditions of the body are favorable for cells to live; this state is known as homeostasis (Cooper, 2011). The favorable conditions are achieved when the systems ensure that the internal environment remains constant. The process of maintaining the constant conditions is known as the regulation of homeostasis. The process of regulating homeostasis involves three parts that include the effectors, control centers, and the receptors (Cooper, 2011). These parts standardize the internal conditions whenever external circumstances fluctuate. The receptor is in charge of collecting information from the external environment; for example, when the weather changes from hot to cold, these elements record this change. The receptor then transfers the information to the control center. The center is in charge of p rocessing the information received from the receptor. The center then determines the change that should occur in the internal environment to ensure that it does not fluctuate like the surrounding. The center commands the effectors to execute the change (Cooper, 2011). This process is repeated whenever the surrounding conditions fluctuate, and this maintains homeostasis in the body. The change that the center would produce in case of cold weather would be increasing the body temperature. The effectors increase the temperature after receiving the command from the center. The nervous system is in charge of controlling other arrangements in the body because it consists of the brain, which is the main body regulator. The systems consist of the brain, neurons, and neurotransmitters. The neurons produce various types of transmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. The neurotransmitters transfer signals to the effectors and receptors in chemical form (Sherman, 2007); therefore, any interference with this process may damage the brain or hinder its efficient functioning. Methods by which Various Drugs Alter Neurotransmission Drug abuse is one of the processes that damage the brain and hinder the efficient functioning of the neurotransmitters. Drugs such as heroine stimulate the production of excess receptors in the brain. The increase in opioids in the brain also increases the production of dopamine. Cocaine, on the other hand, enters the neuromembrane by clinging on dopamine transmitters (Sherman, 2007). This blocks dopamine from entering into the transmit ters, and it leads to the increase of these organelles in the synapse. The increase in the dopamine in the synapse leads to the desire for more cocaine, which consequently leads to addiction. Alcohol is another drug that affects neurotransmission by altering the shape and structure of the neuromembrane, enzymes, ions, and receptors. The use of alcohol also blocks the receptors that take place in the synaptic process, which is responsible for helping an individual to learn and remember things (Sherman, 2007). Caffeine, which is contained in drinks such as coffee affects the process of transmitting neurons by preventing adenosine from connecting to its receptor. Adenosine is responsible for inducing sleep in a person. This means that individuals lack sleep when adenosine fails to perform its function efficiently. These disruptions of the neurotransm

Ritz Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel

Ritz Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel This report is based on my internship at The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel. My internship commenced from 6/10/2010 to 15/01/2011. This is a five star luxury hotel which is situated at the heart of Kuala Lumpur which is also known as The Golden Triangle area. I was assigned to few different departments in the hotel such as The Lobby Lounge, Carlton Gourmet, Housekeeping and Front Office. I have gained more knowledge and also widen my network with people from all walks of life. I also feel that The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel is a great place to gain experience as I have acquired about new techniques and skills which I have never known. Furthermore, being able to work in one of the worlds most prestige hotel really gave me a chance to test my skills and ability to cope with the harsh environment of the hoteliers life. In my report, I will include my working experience with The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel, my views during training and overall success of the hotel. Company Profiles The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, L.L.C. was founded in August, 1983 following the purchase of The Ritz-Carlton, Boston and the rights to the name Ritz-Carlton throughout the United States. The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, L.L.C. maintains its corporate headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia. Although the Company was officially formed in 1983, its history and traditions date back to the 1800s. Regarding the famous logo of the Ritz-Carlton, the crown was a symbol of British Royalty and the lion was actually the logo of an insurance company. The founder of the Ritz-Carlton hotels, Cesar Ritz decided to combine the two symbols together and in 1968 the logo was redesigned from a normal looking tamed lion to a look that was more elegant and yet sophisticated. This has made a change in direction for The Ritz-Carlton Hotel Company, L.L.C. in the years to come. The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel in particular is owned by a company called YTL CORPORATION BERHAD. YTL stands for YEOH TIONG LAY. This company is one of the biggest corporation in Malaysia and it is very well known for its award winning world class hotels and resorts such as JW MARRIOT , THE RITZ-CARLTON,PANGKOR LAUT AND VISTANA KUALA LUMPUR . Located within the famous Golden Triangle district, The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur has won multiple 5 Star Awards with its 250 guest rooms including 30 suites, 25 meeting rooms totaling up to 30,000 square feet and four exceptional restaurants such as The Lobby Lounge, Carlton Gourmet, Cesar and award winning Li Yen. Map to The Ritz-Carlton, Kuala Lumpur Hotel. C:UsersVINCENTDesktopritz-carlton_map.jpg The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel is located at No. 168, Jalan Imbi 52100 Kuala Lumpur. It is interconnected with Starhill Galery and the J.W. Marriot Hotel. This hotel is situated at a very strategic place because it is near to shopping malls such as Pavilion, Lot 10, Sungei Wang and the Menara Times Square. TYPES OF FACILITIES Facilities at The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel include a general swimming pool and also a personal swimming pool for every penthouse. The operation hours for the general swimming pool are from 6.00 A.M to 8.00 P.M. The hotel also provides a gymnasium which runs 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The hotels Jacuzzi, Sauna and Steam Bath operate from 6.00 A.M to 10.00 P.M daily. Massage and Spa services are available at Spa Village which is one of Malaysias most renowned Spa centre. Their signature treatments are the Sensory Exploration and Campur Campur. Spa Village also has their own private swimming pool catered for Spa guest and residence only. Their operating hour is from 9.00 A.M to 9.00 P.M. All of the above facilities mentioned are located on the 4th floor of the hotel wing. A Business Center can be found on the 1st floor of the hotel wing which caters mostly for businessmen, Internet users and gift shop for guest. Meeting room which can fit up to 6 person maximum is available for rental for RM 120++ per hour .As for the Suites Wing site, there are 25 more meeting rooms available for rental. For hotel guest who needs to use the internet, Internet usage is chargeable at RM 40 per hour. Other services such as fax, printing, photocopy and binding is also available at the same floor. In addition, hotel guest who wants to buy souvenirs such as postcards and hotel amenities, a gift shop is available also at the business center. Business center is open from Monday to Friday at 8.00 A.M to 10.00 P.M and Saturday, Sunday and Public Holidays at 9.00 A.M to 5.00 P.M. This is a luxury hotel so therefore the facilities are very limited. ORGANIZATIONAL CHART Mr. Stephen Andrew Cokkinias (General Manager) Ms. Aishah Khalid (Rooms Division Manager) Mr. Paolo Savi (Rooms Manager) Mr. Carlos De La Barra Lascurain (Director of Food and Beverage) Ms. Cheryl Loo Su-Ann (Director of Sales) Ms. Lim Chui Fung (Director of Human Resources) Mr. Joshua Lim (Suite Wing Manager) Ms. Katrina Ong Peik See (Financial Controller) Mr. Vincent Wong (Maintenance Manager) ~DEPARTMENTS~ Organizational Chart for Carlton Gourmet Outlet Manager Assistant Manager Waiter (x3) Chef (x2) Waitresses (x1) Steward (x1) Cashier (x1) This is the organization chart for Carlton Gourmet. With revenue of more than RM 80,000 a month this outlet has really pushed its limits and raised the standards. Carlton Gourmet is a very relaxed yet refined place to be at. The operation hours are from 7.30 A.M. to 6.00 P.M. This outlet concentrates mainly on breakfast, lunch and high tea. The morning shift crew which consists of the Manager, one chef and two waiters and one cashier whose shifts start at 7.00 A.M. to 3.00 P.M. As for the afternoon shift crew it consists of the Assistant Manager, one chef, and three waiters whose shifts start at 10.00 A.M. to 6.00 P.M. Only the steward stays from the start of the operation till the end. For breakfast, it is a semi-buffet selection which consist of a continental bar and a selection of Eggs and Omelets or From the Griddle. The continental bar consists of items such as fruits, salads, compote, cereal and many others. In the Eggs and Omelets menu there are six different types of selection to choose from which are two eggs any style, western omelet, smoked salmon omelet, egg white omelet, eggs benedict, and corned beef hash with two eggs. All of those six choices will come with a hash brown. As for the From the Griddle menu, you could choose from the silver dollar pancakes or French toast with Belgian waffles. The breakfast menu will only be served from 7.30 A.M. to 10.30 A.M. after that continued by the lunch menu until 6.00 A.M. which serves a variety of salads, pastas, sandwiches and wraps, sausages and from the grill such as burgers and grilled meats. At Carlton Gourmet, a variety of snacks, drinks, pastries, bakeries, chocolates and tea are sold there. They use the finest coffee from Italy which is illy coffee and serves a range from cappuccino to latte or even espresso. Sunkist oranges are used to make juices for the guest and in a day almost a whole box of oranges will be used. Carlton Gourmet also specializes in hamper packing. Hampers for occasions such as Arab Season, Hari Raya, Christmas, and Chinese New year will be packed for the hotel and suite guests. Roughly 200 hampers are handmade by the staff of Carlton Gourmet for each and every occasion mentioned. This are the duties needed to be carried out by the morning shift crew: Collect petty cash money from Accounts Department Collect newspapers and In House Details from Front Desk On all the lights in the outlet Overturn the coffee cups Prepare milk and butter for each table Prepare the breakfast semi-buffet bar Collect bakeries from Cesar restaurant Prepare Mise-en-place Count and send all their dirty napkins to laundry during their lunch break Fold all clean napkins and store in cupboard And most importantly attend to the guests This are the duties needed to be carried out by the afternoon shift crew: Collect bakeries and pastries from J.W. Marriot Clear morning setting on table to replace with lunch setting Ensure the drinks stock is at par Serve guests and make drinks Peel oranges for juices Wipe dry cutleries, cups, glasses and saucers Do table setting for the next day breakfast Sweep and mop the floor during closing time Arrange bills into orderly manner Log off cashier and return money back to Accounts Department Ensure all the lights are off except the entrance light Ensure all doors are locked and return keys back to Security Department My experience at Carlton Gourmet I have been training at this Food and Beverage outlet since 06/10/2010 to 17/10/2010. Working for two weeks at the Carlton Gourmet has given me an inside look on how to run a small yet successful dining outlet. The experience that I have gained over the days working there had made me a more knowledgeable person. Although this outlet is small and not really busy during normal days, I still managed to input a huge amount of working skill in me. Learning the different types of pastries and bakeries from names such as chicken pie, to names that my tongue cannot even pronounce, this is the one place where I learnt about food from all over the globe. This outlet normally caters to suite wing guest rather than hotel guests. There are many long term guests at the suite wing so one of my hardest challenges was one- remembering their names and how to address them correctly, two- remembering their room number and how many complimentary breakfast do they have, and three- remembering their food and drink preferences. For example, Ms. Mink Ong is a lady who is in her late 40s and she owns three shops at the Starhill Gallery. Every morning roughly around 10.00 A.M. she would come to Carlton Gourmet and no questions asked, she should be served her croissants and fresh cut of papaya (with a bowl of hot water for her to wash it in). After eating her fruits, clear her soiled plates and serve her one cup of coffee and a small jug of hot milk. What I have realized and noticed is that the little things that you take initiative to care about the guest make a very big difference. Because other than the staff of the hotel, the guests are also the ones who could make or break the revenue of the hotel and eventually the pay that goes into our pockets. Organizational Chart for The Lobby Lounge Outlet Manager Supervisor Bar Captain Bartender Server (X4) This is the organization chart for the Lobby Lounge at The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur. With revenue of more than RM 120,000 monthly, this is an outlet where working standards had to meet with quantity and quality. The operation hour for this outlet is from 10.00 A.M. to 1.00 A.M. Morning shift staff and trainees starts at 9.00 A.M. to 3.00 P.M. The afternoon shift trainee comes in at 3.00 P.M. to 11.00 P.M. where by the afternoon shift staff comes in at 5.00 P.M. to 1.00 A.M. The manager of this outlet only comes in from 11.00 A.M. onwards. This outlet can be quite slow in the morning because normally all the guests that comes in will only have tea or coffee. But when he sun sets and night approaches, usually the Lobby Lounge will be packed with guests. At the Lobby Lounge, we serve a variety of FOURTHY different types of tea which are broken down into 4 categories which are Black Tea, Fruit Tea, Green Tea, and Herbs Tea. All of the teas are imported from different countries such as Europe, USA, China, Japan, India and many other places. The bar consists of more than 30 brands of wine. The liquor served at the bar is based on a full bar set up which has vodka, rum, whisky, cognac, gin, liqueurs, and bitters. We have more than 20 different types of whisky brands ranging from single malt whiskies to blended whiskies. As far as beverages goes, we serve our famous Afternoon Tea. It is a very exquisite English tea tradition carried out by English people back in the days. It starts from 3.00 P.M. to 5.00 P.M. from Mondays to Saturdays. There is this watch/ jewelry shop in Starhill Galery named Mouawad. They signed a one year contract for us to deliver the Afternoon Tea set to their shop everyday from Mondays to Saturdays. Usually the Afternoon shift staff will send it to them. We also have an occasion called The Sunday Roast. It is a very elegant event which is strictly conducted by our FB Director Mr. Carlos De La Barra Lascurain. This event only takes place on every Sunday and no staff can take off for this weekend event. The Sunday Roast starts from 11.00 A.M. to 3.00 P.M. which will be accommodated by a three-piece jazz band consisting of a grand piano, double bass and a saxophone. This event is serves a semi-buffet style. With one main course to choose from which could either be the Angus Prime Black Beef, Scottish Salmon or Darling Roast Lamb. The main course will be placed on a portable trolley which the chef will push to a guests table and cut in front of them. As for the buffet counter, it consists of cheese from around the world, sausages, chocolates, salads, puddings, seafood, soup and sushi. The Afternoon Tea will not be served on this day. This are the duties needed to be carried out by the morning shift crew: Take petty cash money from Accounts Department at 2nd floor Opening of cash register Set up the bar and arrange all the alcohol beverages. Wipe all the glass tables and bar top. Prepare Mise-en-place and garnishes for drinks. Arrange magazines and daily newspapers. On the coffee machine. Ensure enough hot water is boiled for tea. Make welcome drink (to be placed at hotel wing lobby). Do cigar and cigarette inventory. Ensure all cups and glasses are clean and arrange neatly on shelf. Collect ice cubes for bar from main kitchen (Cesar, 1st floor). Tidy up the pillows and sofas. Write down inter-transfer list for Afternoon Tea. Send soiled napkins to laundry at 3rd floor. Collect Afternoon Tea from cold kitchen and pastry kitchen. Send a set of Afternoon Tea wit cutlery and plates to Mouawad by 2.30 P.M. Serve guest. Do inventory for sales closing. Do handover of cash register to afternoon shift staff. This are the duties needed to be carried out by the Afternoon shift crew: Do 2nd cigar and cigarette inventory of the day. Check for stock of bottled beer and juices. Light tea-light candles at 7.00 P.M. and to be placed on each table. Dim down the lights at 7.00 P.M. Push out the cup cake trolley. Ensure enough hot water is boiled for tea. Serve guest. Do closing of cash register. Do inventory for sales closing. Hand over petty cash money to Accounts Department (in an Elsafe) Bundle up all customer receipts of the day and placed at pigeon hole at Accounts Department. Clean up for next day. My experience at The Lobby Lounge I have been training at this Food and Beverage outlet since 18/10/2010 to 06/11/2010. My experience at the Lobby Lounge was a fantastic one. I felt very comfortable when I was doing my internship there. Yes there were some rough and pressured times but the staff at the Lobby Lounge felt like a little family to me. Everyone was so knowledgeable regarding the beverage that was sold at The Lobby Lounge. I had the privilege to study cocktail and mocktail making by the bartender. I also learnt how to pour a perfect glass of beer by the Captain. I also learnt how to make Latte and Cappuccino. I learnt about the different types of alcohol, wine and its origins too. There was abundant of things for me to learn in so little time. I also learnt that standing behind the bar and being a bartender, one has to have a very joyful and friendly attitude. Because for the guest sitting at the bar counter, they expect to be conversed with. There was this one time where this guest name Josh from the US came to the bar everyday to have a few drinks because he felt comfortable sitting and chatting with me. Working front of the house meant you have to have a positive attitude and attend to guest professionally while thinking What would I want if I was in the customers shoes?. As for the way of serving food and beverages to the guest, I learnt that the method practiced over there was Serve from the right, clear from the right. Many things I learnt at Tunku Abdul Rahman College, did not really apply to the work method in this outlet. But still, I was very thankful because now I know different ways of serving a guest/ customer. Having done my internship here at The Lobby Lounge thought me that I would WANT to be in this line of duty. Serving and mingling with the customers and guest of the hotel. It was a great pleasure working with my little family at The Lobby Lounge. They are the best at what they do. Organizational Chart for Front Office Front Office Manager Assistant Front Office Manager Duty Manager (X6) Guest Service Assistance (X 11) Concierge (X3) Bell Men (X9) Rooms Controller Door Man (X5) This is the organization chart for the Front Office Department at The Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur. Basically this department is broken down into 3 groups which are Concierge counter, Bell Counter and the Reception. Only for the Bell counter (which includes the Door Men) and the Reception group operates continuous on a 24 hours basis. As for the Concierge, it only operates from 7.00 A.M. until 11.00 P.M. As for the working shifts in this department, only four shifts are provided which are: A.M. Shift 7.00 A.M. to 3.00 P.M. P.M. Shift 3.00 P.M. to 11.00 P.M. Night Shift 11.00 P.M. to 7.00 A.M. Relief Shift 12.00 P.M. to 8.00 P.M. My experience at Front Office My intern at this department began from the 7th of November 2010 to the 12th of December 2010. I had five weeks in this department and first week of this department started off at being a Door Man and a Bell Man. Being a Door Man is quite simple because all you have to do is open and close the lobby door for the guests as they walk in and out of the hotel, call for taxi which are on standby opposite the hotel for the guests and sometimes help the Bell Man to carry some luggages. Being a Bell Man has thought me to be sharp on the job because we had to tag and watch after guest luggages. We had 2 types of tags. One was for the Arrival Tag whereby when the guest checks into the hotel, the name and room of the guest will be written on the Arrival Tag so that the Bell Man can bring the luggages up for the guest. As for the Departure Tag, it could be used for either during guest check out or storing the luggages for guest. Then came to the second week of being at Front Office where I spent two whole weeks at the concierge counter. I really gained a lot of information about Malaysia that I did not even know about. Did you know that the Petronas Twin Tower serves a luxury lunch and dinner at the 86th floor which overlooks the city skyline? Well now I know. Being in the concierge had widened my knowledge regarding the little wonders that Malaysia has to offer and I had to learn about almost anything and everything in Kuala Lumpur regarding all the tourist sights. Every day, the staff at the concierge counter has to print out the arrival and departure list some guest arrive at the hotel with their own mode of transport but for those who like to be pampered, a Mercedes Limousine transport can be arranged for the guest but for those who wants a more cheaper but yet luxurious alternative, a VIP Train Service can be arranged to pick up guest all the way from the airport to KL Central followed by a limousine pi ck up directly to the hotel. Wai Kong Tours is a tour company where by it works in conjunction with the Ritz-Carlton Kuala Lumpur Hotel. Wai Kong Tours would provide the concierge counter with their broachers for us to promote their tours for them. What would happen is, if the guest would want to go for a tour from the broacher, we (the concierge) have to ask Wai Kong Tours whether there is any available tour that the guest wants for that that day. Because sometimes the tours may be full and the policy for Wai Kong Tour is that if a guest wants to go for a certain tour, it has to be two person and above. Basically being in the concierge meant you had to have a vast amount of knowledge regarding the area that surrounds you, not only that but also have knowledge about the operating hours of tourist locations and new promotions. For the first few days when I was in concierge, I was even too scared to answer the phone. But as the days progressed, I started to gain a certain amount of confidence in myself. As for the staff of the concierge, hats off to them because they are the ones that thought me a lot. After my training at the concierge, I moved on the reception counter where I was to be as a Guest Service Assistant. I had to learn the HIS System and learn how to check in guest. To check in a guest, I had to fill in their particulars on the registration card (which will be printed by the afternoon shift staff the day before). Guest particulars included their home address, mobile number, e-mail address, double check the name, credit card details (if they were to pay with it) and last but not least, get the guest signature. Once I have collected all the information that I needed, I would ask the guest how his or her mode of payment would be. If he or she is using a credit card, we had to explain that an amount of RM200 per night will be blocked from the credit card so that the guest can just sign the bill if he or she is ordering in room dining or paying for laundry. For example, if Mr. Guths room rate is at RM600 per night and is staying for three nights, so all together a Guest Ser vice Assistant (GSA) has to hold an amount of RM1,200 of the credit card. If a guest pays cash for their room, then we have to write the words COD on the registration card and alert all the outlets such as the Food and Beverage outlets and laundry department that the guest would and should pay cash for anything purchased. After collecting the mode of payment from the guest, we issue a key card to them and escort the guest to their room. While escorting the guest, the GSAs would brief them regarding the facilities at the hotel and some famous tourist spots around Kuala Lumpur. The GSAs would then open the room door for the guest and explain about the rooms complimentary internet and mini bar or the Kiblat sign for Muslim guest. We also had to do departure calls to know what time the guest is leaving and whether they would need any luggage assistance or transportation upon departure. As for guest wake up calls, it will be recorded down and at the end of the day handed over to the operator. If there is a VIP checking in, an express check in is done where by the GSA would pre-check in the guest, escort the guest up to his or her room with the credit card machine and take down the guest particulars in the room itself. At the end of every shift, the GSAs will submit all their check out receipts to the Duty Manager for inspection in case there has been any mix up. Being at the reception was somewhat pressuring because you had to face the guest day in and day out even matters that is not your fault but the guest just wants to let all his frustrations out on you. But on the sunny side up, the Front Office crew is a bunch of people that really knows how to work under pressure yet they can maintain to be lively and cheerful each and every day. The Front Office may be a small department but it is a powerful one. The whole hotel mainly relies on it to generate more income. The Front Office IS the brain of the hotel industry.

I. C. T. :: Computer Science

I. C. T. DATA LOGGING AND CONTROL IDENTIFY My comrade (General Moeen Ahmed Abbasi) who was about to start his business of manufacturing new fighting jets had asked me to make him a system by which he could be able to see how his business was running. The reason for why he had asked me this is that I had my own business of developing new software and hardware. I went to meet him and he told me that he needed such an application by which he could be able to see his: Ø company details Ø employees details Ø customer details Ø shipping / importing / exporting details Ø sales Expenses And so forth. He wanted me to make this system of his ready in two weeks. This was of course more then enough, but as you should know that there are many people outside who haven't got a clue of what uses a computer is and how to use a computer is absolutely out of question. Now let's get back to the subject, as I was saying that it shouldn't take me too long. The longest it will take me should be no more than one day to design the database, one day to make it and two days to enter the company information. The manager had told me that to do everything manually would be like a migraine headache, because he also has a hotel that he used to run manually and therefore had the experience of running something manually is like "the horse riding you". So I have planned to split the database system into four parts. 1. company details (sales, employee details) 2. customer details 3. shipping details 4. query ANALYSE The most suitable package that I found for this database system is Microsoft Access ®. You must be thinking if we have a company of developing new software then why don't we use our own software, the answer to this is that we are develop only that kind of material which is yet not on the market. The reason for why I have chosen this package rather than any other package is that firstly this package is easy to use (a plus point for them), secondly it has several more facilities and finally I am more familiar with this package. For hardware/software there won't be any problems because luckily we had provided them with this. So the programs (software) will more likely be the same. However I will be using Windows XP ®, Pentium IV as my processor and I will be using Microsoft ® Office XP ®. For backup I shall most possibly use a CD-RW or a memory card should do.

Bullying: who does what, when and where? Essay

In this paper, bullying was defined as a form of aggressive behavior or negative actions reoccurring over time between children who bully and those who are victimized (Fekkes, Pijpers, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2005). Furthermore, Fekkes et al. (2005) suggested bullying as a group phenomenon involving not only the bullies and their victims, but also the bystanders. Other problems addressed by this research included the negative impact bullying has on children’s mental and physical health and the level of involvement that is necessary for effective intervention strategies to be successful. The specific research questions posed investigated the extent to which children are involved in bullying behavior, the level of involvement of others (i. e. , teachers, parents, classmates), and the effectiveness of current intervention strategies used to stop bullying behaviors. The purpose of the data presented by this research was to gather information and to utilize that information to compose novel efforts in combating bullying in schools. Fekkes et al. (2005) presented a range of empirical literature to support the need for this research. Studies by Williams et al. , (1996); Salmon et al. , (1998); and Forero et al. , (1999) were included to support the problem of negative health issues associated with bullying behaviors (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Studies by Atlas and Pepler (1998) and Hawkins et al. (2001) supported the notion of bullying as a group phenomenon and the effectiveness of bystander intervention (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Participants in this study were 2766 children from 32 Dutch elementary schools. These children had participated in a longitudinal study on the effectiveness of an anti-bullying policy at schools. It is important to note that the data were collected prior to any implementation of the anti-bullying policy. In November 1999, children from 9 to 11 years old were administered a questionnaire in the classroom. The questionnaire addressed frequency of bullying behaviors, types of bullying behaviors, where bullying behaviors took place, who intervened to stop the bullying, and whether or not the interventions were successful. According to Liebrand et al. (1994), Mooij (1992), and Olweus (1994), this questionnaire was based on the Dutch version of the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire, a well-documented questionnaire that was used in numerous studies on bullying (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Using statistical analyses to analyze the data from the questionnaires, Fekkes et al. (2005) found that active bullying was prevalent at schools. Physical forms of bullying behaviors, such as hitting or pushing, were found to be most typical of boys. Girls were found to initiate bullying behaviors that were relational in nature, such as isolation tactics and rumor spreading. Bullying was found to take place on the playground as well as in the classroom. Nearly half of children being bullied did not report it to their teacher but did speak to their parents about it. A similar finding was also reported by Whitney and Smith (1993) (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Intervention attempts by teachers were found to have little effect, if any, on bullying occurrences. All of these findings provided the insight needed to recommend future intervention strategies. The prevalence of bullying behaviors among children in this age group was found to be consistent with the findings of similar studies conducted cross-culturally. Fekkes et al. (2005) compared the findings of this study to others in Norway, the UK, Italy, and Germany. With regard to gender differences in bullying behaviors, Whitney and Smith (1993), Borg (1999), Junger-Tas and van Kesteren (1999) found similar results among the direct and indirect nature of bullying behaviors among boys and girls (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Olweus (1993a) found that levels of bullying were lower on playgrounds with more teachers present (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Consistent with Whitney and Smith’s (1993) study and Rivers and Smith’s (1994) study, teachers are not regularly told about incidents of bullying behaviors by victimized children (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Because so many of the findings of this paper were consistent with other studies, the next logical step for future researchers would be to systematically integrate the various aspects of this topic into an intervention model with a comprehensive approach. Fekkes et al. (2005) recommended many strategies to assist such interventions. One such recommendation stated that teachers should create an environment in which children feel comfortable talking about their negative bullying experiences. Olweus (1993a) suggested the establishment of class rules aimed at minimizing bullying behavior (as cited in Fekkes et al. , 2005). Fekkes et al. further suggested that in addition to establishing class rules to minimize bullying behaviors, class discussion of the rules on a regular basis may aid in establishing an anti-bullying culture within that community. Another possible step for future research may be to replicate the study with a younger set of participants. Data collected from a younger age group may provide more insight into the early stages of bullying behaviors and early intervention strategies may aid in minimizing the prevalence of incidents of bullying in the higher elementary grades. Overall, I believe this study provided some valuable insight with regard to prevalence of bullying behaviors without the aid of an established intervention program. One of the strengths of this study was its large number of participants as well as findings which were consistent in similar studies in other countries. Such a large sample size provides for a clear snapshot of the pervasiveness of this problem. An additional strength of this study involves its use of an adapted version of the Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire which has been used in many studies on bullying. Using such a well-documented tool lends to the consistency of the findings across multiple studies. Something that stood out to me was that there was no mention of effects of bullying behaviors on peer bystanders, positive or negative. I feel this was a limitation because bystanders were referred to as having a certain degree of power when taught effective intervention strategies Fekkes et al. , 2005). Another limitation I observed was the limited age range of the participants. I feel that with younger participants, it may be possible to do comparison studies to try to pinpoint just when bullying behaviors begin to surface within the social structure of the classroom. A final limitation of this study was its use of a quantitative design to address issues more qualitative in nature. Fekkes et al. (2005) state that the aim of the data presented was to provide insight on the topic. This may be more effectively accomplished by doing a current literature review on the prevalence of bullying behaviors and current intervention strategies. Fekkes et al. (2005) describe their current involvement in a project aimed toward development of anti-bullying policies within schools in the Netherlands. They also describe how this study will be used in that capacity. This paper being linked to such a project also raises questions for me about the integrity of the purpose of the study.

Impact of jet on vanes Essay

The impact of jet experiment is to demonstrate and verify the integral momentum equation.[1]. In lay man terms, it’s another way to understand fluid pressure by using the pressure to accelerate the fluid to a plate by a high velocity in a jet which in result will generate force due to impulse. The graph will show forces against momentum with different design plates. This experiment helps us to understand about fluid pressure also gives us a better understanding about fluid related machines. These Terms have the same force and effect as an Agreement signed in writing. If you do not agree to these Terms, you may not use the Service. Each time you access, upload, or download any content from the Service, you signify your agreement to the then-current terms. This Agreement is subject to change at any time; therefore, you are responsible to review these Terms regularly to learn about any changes. We will post an updated version of these Terms if we modify them. You understand and a gree that your ongoing use of the Service after we post or provide notice of the changes to this Agreement means that you accept and confirm that the updated Terms apply to you. The laws of the State of California govern this Agreement. You agree to resolve any dispute with us as provided in the Dispute Resolution Procedures described in Sections 21 and 22 below, which include arbitration and the options you have with arbitration. We use the term â€Å"You† to mean the person or entity who will access or use the Service as an end user. The term â€Å"Login† means the combination of unique username and password that is used to access our Service. A login is a license to use a site, application or service for a period of time that is specified. â€Å"Membership† or â€Å"Members† means a single registration and/or subscription account per user of a valid username and password (login) for the service during the term of a subscription. â€Å"We† or â⠂¬Å"us† in this Agreement shall mean: its brands, affiliates, subsidiaries and operating divisions.

Free Essays on Cinderella-god

When children watch versions of Cinderella in America, often times they find ways to relate to "faith" and Christian values associated with the good in the story. Christian parents also can surely use Christian values to explain the supernatural and to summarize the morals. Cinderella is a classic fairy-tale, which deals with female maturation and often the death of family member. In Cinderella's' the main character has to deal with the death of her mother and the affects of having a new family with stepsisters. In Grimms tale the stepmother is extremely stereotyped as being the evil, vain and greedy woman who shows no love or affection for her stepdaughter because she was jealous of her. "They took away her beautiful clothes, dressed her in an old grey smock, and gave her some wooden shoes" (Tatar 117). Cinderella is a very strong character in this story who remains unchangeable in her attitude towards her family even though they mistreat her. There is also a supernatural, magical element to this story when Cinderella's "fairy godmother" is introduced. This element to the story could help give children a sense of God and the idea of a guardian angel watching over them. This may possibly lead people to believe that a supernatural realm exists to award those characters with positive characteristics such as beauty, patience, kindness, obedience, or perhaps hard-work ethics. At the same time, those with characteristics that are viewed as negative such as ugliness, cruelty, disobedience, and laziness will be punished. For example, in Grimm's Cinderella the main character is portrayed as beautiful, good, hard working, and abused. Grimms version actually refers to "our lord" "If you are good and say your prayers our good lord will always be with you and I shall look down from heaven and always be with you"(Tatar 117) proving that as Americans we find ways to refer to Christian values to explain the magic. Her magical agent, the... Free Essays on Cinderella-god Free Essays on Cinderella-god When children watch versions of Cinderella in America, often times they find ways to relate to "faith" and Christian values associated with the good in the story. Christian parents also can surely use Christian values to explain the supernatural and to summarize the morals. Cinderella is a classic fairy-tale, which deals with female maturation and often the death of family member. In Cinderella's' the main character has to deal with the death of her mother and the affects of having a new family with stepsisters. In Grimms tale the stepmother is extremely stereotyped as being the evil, vain and greedy woman who shows no love or affection for her stepdaughter because she was jealous of her. "They took away her beautiful clothes, dressed her in an old grey smock, and gave her some wooden shoes" (Tatar 117). Cinderella is a very strong character in this story who remains unchangeable in her attitude towards her family even though they mistreat her. There is also a supernatural, magical element to this story when Cinderella's "fairy godmother" is introduced. This element to the story could help give children a sense of God and the idea of a guardian angel watching over them. This may possibly lead people to believe that a supernatural realm exists to award those characters with positive characteristics such as beauty, patience, kindness, obedience, or perhaps hard-work ethics. At the same time, those with characteristics that are viewed as negative such as ugliness, cruelty, disobedience, and laziness will be punished. For example, in Grimm's Cinderella the main character is portrayed as beautiful, good, hard working, and abused. Grimms version actually refers to "our lord" "If you are good and say your prayers our good lord will always be with you and I shall look down from heaven and always be with you"(Tatar 117) proving that as Americans we find ways to refer to Christian values to explain the magic. Her magical agent, the...

Twilight Zoine essays

Twilight Zoine essays Mona: waving the multicolored flashlight. Our setting is a very boring planet in the middle of two points in the galaxy. This planet is doomed for destruction by the Galactic Hyperspace Planning Council to make way for a hyperspatial express route that will run through our star system. This is a special report from The United Relocation Committee in the hopes of preparing the majority of the population for the inevitable move to Earth. This report is designed to help with synthesizing our Altarian culture to that of the Earth. Earth, as you all know, is the best chance for creating homeostatic environment between two cultures, one of which is ours since theirs is considered Mostly Harmless by some standards. We, as intelligent being on our planet, must learn to live by a few of these new social rules that Earth calls ethics*.(*said with a bit of an accent) We have set up a program so that you may learn Earth customs and ethics* along with our most veteran space explorer, Lieutenant Dodge de Neon, as he investigates Earth. The countries that were selected were not at random. It is quite simple really, The United Relocation Committee chose countries that are believed to be the purposed accepting end of about 55.6% of all archaic signals that have, for some unknown reason, been noticeable for twenty-three minutes on a few old broadcasting channels that are still used to check for intelligent life on other planets. The countries that have sent most of the broadcasting are believed not to need such necessary visits as those on the receiving end because all these special broadcasts will be aired every day between eight and ten d.m. in the hopes of teaching everyone all about these countries with least amount of Altarian tax dollars being spent. Focus in on the small car arriving in country a. ...

ESL Tips to Improve Your English Online

ESL Tips to Improve Your English Online Here are some tips to improving English both in how your learn and via the internet. Take It Slow Remember that learning a language is a gradual process - it does not happen overnight. Define Objectives Define your learning objectives early: What do you want to learn and why? - Take this quiz to find out what kind of English learner you are. Choose Well Choose your materials well. You will need reading, grammar, writing, speaking and listening materials - Beginners can use this starting English guide, intermediate to advanced learners can use this continue learning English guide. Change It Up Vary your learning routine. It is best to do different things each day to help keep the various relationships between each area active. In other words, dont just study grammar. Keep Friends Close Find friends to study and speak with. Learning English together can be very encouraging. - Soziety can help you find friends to speak English over the internet. Keep It Interesting Choose listening and reading materials that relate to what you are interested in. Being interested in the subject will make learning more enjoyable - thus more effective. Practice Grammar Relate grammar to practical usage. Grammar by itself does not help you USE the language. You should practice what you are learning by employing it actively. Flex Those Muscles Move your mouth! Understanding something doesnt mean the muscles of your mouth can produce the sounds. Practice speaking what you are learning aloud. It may seem strange, but it is very effective. Have Patience Be patient with yourself. Remember learning is a process - speaking a language well takes time. It is not a computer that is either on or off! Communicate There is nothing like communicating in English and being successful. Grammar exercises are good - having your friend on the other side of the world understand your email is fantastic! Use The Internet The Internet is the most exciting, unlimited English resource that anyone could imagine and it is right at your finger tips. Practice! Practice, practice, practice

Small Business Program and Source Selection Plans Essay

Small Business Program and Source Selection Plans - Essay Example ibed as a privately owned business that is not dominant in its field of operation, and that falls within the definition recognized by the Administrator of Small Business (Compton, 2009). The standards of evaluating the size of the business are determined by the number of workers, mean annual gross income, and relative size of other businesses in the same industry (Keyes & Feldman, 2011). Small business program is used for reviewing the capacity of the small businesses to compete effectively in particular industries. The amendment of Small Business Act in 1978 by the congress provided for the heads of agencies in collaboration with Small Business Administration (SBA) to set-aside the value of the "total contract and subcontracts to be awarded to small businesses every year" (Manuel & Lunder, 2012). In 1988, the congress made further amendment to establish a provision for the establishment of government-wide objectives of awarding proportion of the federal contracts and subcontracts dollars to small businesses in various categories (Cibinic et al., 2006). The provisions require a proportion of equal to or greater than 23% of the government contracts awarded to small business, 5% to business owned by people with disability, 5% to small businesses owned by women, 3% to small businesses owned by service-disabled and 3% to Historically Underutilized Business Zones (HUBZone) small businesses (Keyes & Feldman, 2011). However, if the total value of the contract is above $2,500 and not exceeding $100,000 the whole contract can be awarded to small businesses that have the capacity to deliver the requirement (Cibinic et al., 2006). Awarding of the contracts to small business by the agencies is of the essence to the government because it depicts the efficiency with which the congressional policy of empowering small business is being implemented (Compton, 2009). However, following the criticism that the government was not achieving its goals of empowering the small businesses

History of Baseball in America Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

History of Baseball in America - Assignment Example In the year 1942, he joined Brooklyn Dodgers and initiated a plan to transport a black player inside the team that would not only accelerate team’s performance but also delivers a socially aware message to the American society for its benefit. However, he was also skeptic that the inclusion of the black player will need to be more than a brilliant athlete with state wrong mental strength to restrain from being provoked by the unfriendliness and foul languages that might otherwise raise disagreements imposing negative effects on the team’s sustainability. After exploring many players from Negro leagues, Branch Ricky decided to involve Jackie Robinson in the year 1945. Jackie was an African American baseball player, who was then playing with Kansas City Monarchs, an important group in the Negro Leagues (The Library of Congress, n.d.). In that time many economic and other multifaceted problems forced and entertained the racial segregation in baseball. For instance, a number of major league teams used to give their stadiums on rent to the Negro Teams only when their own team was on a long journey; thus, hindering cross-communication between the two groups. Consequently, if integration would have been conducted in the sport, the Negro teams would have lost their best players and the Negro League would face difficulties to carry on as a result many of Negro players losing their source of revenue. Moreover, with such practices, the stadium owners would lose their rental profits (The Library of Congress, n.d.). Notably, the existence of these political and economic obstacles increased complexities in the integration process. To avoid these hazards, Branch Ricky proposed Jackie to be a part of a major league in March, 1945. In August, 1945, they met at Brooklyn Dodger’s office where Jackie was informed that Ricky would be starting a new team named Brown Dodgers. Subsequently, Jackie agreed to sign the bond with Brooklyn’s Triple-A minor league farm club, the Montreal Royals.

Dangerous Properties of Materials Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dangerous Properties of Materials - Coursework Example Though all forms of mercury can cause effects in the central and peripheral nervous system, methyl mercury and metallic mercury are more harmful. Acute inhalation of metallic mercury vapours may cause damage to the lungs, nausea, diarrhea, increased blood pressure, skin rashes, eye irritation, chest pains, stomatitis, gingivitis, cough, dyspnea and salivation. Chronic exposure to high levels of metallic, inorganic, or organic mercury may cause permanent damage to brain, kidneys and developing fetus. Effects of chronic exposure on brain functioning may cause weakness, fatigue, weight loss, vision or hearing disorders, tremors development, behavioral changes, aneuploidy in lymphocytes of the exposed, dremographia and memory loss. Chronic exposure to mercuric compounds is sometimes also characterized by anorexia, apathy, fever, diaphoresis, photophobia, insomnia and scaling or peeling of the skin of the hands and feet with bullous lesions. Toxicity Metabolites and Biomarkers Exposure to organo-mercury compounds is indicated by chemical analysis of blood mercury. Inorganic mercury concentrations in blood can be used to determine acute exposure to high dose of mercury. Absorption of phenyl mercury through gastrointestinal tract with even acute exposure resulted in a marked increase in blood concentrations as well as urinary excretion of mercury. Chemical analysis of urinary mercury can alternatively be used to determine exposure to chronic, low and moderate inorganic mercury forms. As mercury can deposit on hair from surface contamination, hair mercury is a good indicator of exposure to methyl mercury. Dose The acute lethal dose for inorganic mercury compounds is 1 to 4 grams or 14 to 57 milligrams per kilogram body weight for a 70 kg adult person. The acute lethal dose ranges from 20 to 60 milligrams per kilogram body weight of methyl mercury for a 70 kg adult person. According to EPA, a limit of 2 parts of mercury per billion parts of drinking water (2 ppb) is saf e for human health. A limit of 1 part of methyl mercury in a million parts of seafood (1 ppm) has been set by the Food and Drug Administration. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has suggested a maximum permissible limit of 0.1 milligram of organic mercury per cubic meter of workplace air (0.1 mg/m3) and 0.05 mg/m3 of metallic mercury vapor for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work. Effects on the environment, cases and their treatment Mercury (Hg) is a naturally occurring odorless liquid metal with shiny, silver-white appearance. Mercury also combines with other elements to form several inorganic salts and organo-mercury compounds. It enters the environment naturally from rocks, soil, volcanic activity, and by vaporization from the oceans. However, two-third of the Mercury entering the atmosphere every year is released from human sources. These sources include coal-burning power plants, chemical manufacturing plants, waste incinerators and mining of ore deposits. The disease caused by exposure to mercury compounds is called Mercury poisoning, Hydrargyria or Mercurialism. The first case of mercury poisoning was witnessed among researchers at St Bartholomew’s Hospital in 1865. Two of the three technicians died because of excessive exposure to methyl mercury while manufacturing organic mercurial compounds. Human exposure to high levels of

Commercial Success Storyboard Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Commercial Success Storyboard - Assignment Example The target audience for the product is smokers between the ages of 18-42. A commercial campaign for this product should be run in the primetime hours of 8:00 P.M. – 11:00 P.M. The commercial should be aired at a time when there is maximum audience in order to reach more people. The firm should select a program that is popular and that is watched by a broad audience. A good show for the company to purchase commercial time on is America’s Got Talent broadcasted by NBC. America’s Got Talent is in the entertainment competition category. The show is aired Tuesdays at 8:00 P.M. eastern. This show is a good candidate because people of all ages and backgrounds watch this show. The creative approach that will be used to attract customers is by emphasizing on three elements: coolness factor, sex appeal, and convenience of the product. A celebrity guest will be included in the commercial. The 30 second commercial that will be prepared for The Electronic Cigarette Company wi ll be delivered using the broadcasting services of NBC. NBC is considered one of the market leaders among national television stations. Despite being one of the market leaders NBC has very reasonable pricing in comparison with the competition.

Pig Growth Rates in Vietnam Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Pig Growth Rates in Vietnam - Article Example The data of litter mortality, birth weight, farm of origin, year of birth, and weight of big after twenty one days concerning a sample of one thousand pigs were collected and recorded. The purpose of the study is to compare growth performance of these two breeds of pigs by analyzing the effect of the different factors monitored in isolation and combined on the growth of pigs represented by their average weight after twenty one days of their birth. To determine the relationship between the Day 21 average piglet weight and the various influences monitored during the experiment such as breed, farm of origin, year of birth, litter mortality and birth weight, the following Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analyses were examined: The non-numerical value of Breed was coded numerically so that Breed equals one for Landrace (L) piglets and equals to zero for Yorkshire (Y). Regression analysis was applied with the numerical representation of breed as the independent variable and the dependent variable Day 21 average weight. Table 1 summarizes the results of the regression analysis. Table 1 shows adjusted R-squared of -0.00078 which means the independent variable breed predicts 0.07% of the dependent variable Day 21 average piglet weight. T-stat for this variable is 0.46674 so it is statistically insignificant. Both values indicate changes in breed do not affect the Day 21 average piglet weight. Regression analysis was applied... 0.000218 Adjust R2 -0.00078 Standard Error 0.793569 Observations 1000 Table 1 shows adjusted R-squared of -0.00078 which means the independent variable breed predicts 0.07% of the dependent variable Day 21 average piglet weight. T-stat for this variable is 0.46674 so it is statistically insignificant. Both values indicate changes in breed do not affect the Day 21 average piglet weight. 4.2 Analysis II: Relationship between Day 21 Average Piglet Weight and Farm of Origin The non-numerical value of the farm-of-origin variable is numerically encoded to allow statistical analysis of the variable using the following code shown in table 2. Table 2: Encoding of Farm of Origin into Number Farm of Origin Numerical Code A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 E 5 F 6 G 7 Regression analysis was applied with the numerical representation of farm of origin as the independent variable and the dependent variable Day 21 average weight. Table 3 summarizes the results of the regression analysis. Table 3:Regression results for Day 21 Average Piglet Weight as a function of Farm of Origin Independent Variable Enumerated Farm of Origin Dependent variable: Day 21 Average Piglet Weight Constant 5.038045 Coefficient -0.04348 T Stat -2.87992 R2 0.008242 Adjust R2 0.007248 Standard Error 0.790379 Observations 1000 Table 3 shows adjusted R-squared of 0.007248 which means the independent variable farm of origin predicts 0.7% of the dependent variable Day 21 average piglet weight which is still a small influence but with more effect than the breed variable. T-stat for this variable is -2.87992 so it is statistically significant. Both values indicate the limited effect of breed in Day 21 average piglet weight. The Day 21 weight can be predicted to some limited extent using the equation: Day 21 Average Weight

Local practice essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Local practice - Essay Example After interviewing the members of the Chinese family, I realized there are numerous misconceptions about the Chinese culture, practices, and family organization. The family has been in the United States for two generations, but none of the members has intermarried with other cultures. The family I interviewed comprises both parents and their five children. This paper is a comparison of the information in books with the local practices of the Chinese people. There is a misconception that Chinese can barely speak English. Although Chinese have limited English proficiency, some of them can communicate considerably well. However, I noticed they have a tendency of using Mandarin even in the presence of persons who do not understand it. Additionally, though some can speak some English, they have poor understanding capability. As we spoke, I realized that they would frequently misunderstand me. However, when discussing issues regarding their culture, they would understand better than when discussing other issues (Ngo-Metzger, et al., 2003; Rastogi, 2002). There is a misconception that the Chinese people do not take a stand in an issue or they are shy. On the contrary, I realized this is not true. In the short period I spent with them, they disclosed a lot of information regarding their past. They would freely talk about their social life. Like explained in the books, the Chinese culture stresses the dedication to family and traditions. I realized that they have some disregard to individualism. They have a tendency of shielding a sick family member from accessing bad medical news. They told me of an example that one of their family member died of cancer without ever knowing what she was suffering from. They argued that disclosing such news to her would only have made matters worse since she was still too young. While dealing with Chinese, it is thus important to ask them of the persons who can

Pig Growth Rates in Vietnam Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Pig Growth Rates in Vietnam - Article Example The data of litter mortality, birth weight, farm of origin, year of birth, and weight of big after twenty one days concerning a sample of one thousand pigs were collected and recorded. The purpose of the study is to compare growth performance of these two breeds of pigs by analyzing the effect of the different factors monitored in isolation and combined on the growth of pigs represented by their average weight after twenty one days of their birth. To determine the relationship between the Day 21 average piglet weight and the various influences monitored during the experiment such as breed, farm of origin, year of birth, litter mortality and birth weight, the following Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression analyses were examined: The non-numerical value of Breed was coded numerically so that Breed equals one for Landrace (L) piglets and equals to zero for Yorkshire (Y). Regression analysis was applied with the numerical representation of breed as the independent variable and the dependent variable Day 21 average weight. Table 1 summarizes the results of the regression analysis. Table 1 shows adjusted R-squared of -0.00078 which means the independent variable breed predicts 0.07% of the dependent variable Day 21 average piglet weight. T-stat for this variable is 0.46674 so it is statistically insignificant. Both values indicate changes in breed do not affect the Day 21 average piglet weight. Regression analysis was applied... 0.000218 Adjust R2 -0.00078 Standard Error 0.793569 Observations 1000 Table 1 shows adjusted R-squared of -0.00078 which means the independent variable breed predicts 0.07% of the dependent variable Day 21 average piglet weight. T-stat for this variable is 0.46674 so it is statistically insignificant. Both values indicate changes in breed do not affect the Day 21 average piglet weight. 4.2 Analysis II: Relationship between Day 21 Average Piglet Weight and Farm of Origin The non-numerical value of the farm-of-origin variable is numerically encoded to allow statistical analysis of the variable using the following code shown in table 2. Table 2: Encoding of Farm of Origin into Number Farm of Origin Numerical Code A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 E 5 F 6 G 7 Regression analysis was applied with the numerical representation of farm of origin as the independent variable and the dependent variable Day 21 average weight. Table 3 summarizes the results of the regression analysis. Table 3:Regression results for Day 21 Average Piglet Weight as a function of Farm of Origin Independent Variable Enumerated Farm of Origin Dependent variable: Day 21 Average Piglet Weight Constant 5.038045 Coefficient -0.04348 T Stat -2.87992 R2 0.008242 Adjust R2 0.007248 Standard Error 0.790379 Observations 1000 Table 3 shows adjusted R-squared of 0.007248 which means the independent variable farm of origin predicts 0.7% of the dependent variable Day 21 average piglet weight which is still a small influence but with more effect than the breed variable. T-stat for this variable is -2.87992 so it is statistically significant. Both values indicate the limited effect of breed in Day 21 average piglet weight. The Day 21 weight can be predicted to some limited extent using the equation: Day 21 Average Weight

Analyzing the Similarities between “Hymn to the Aton” and “Psalm 104” Essay Example for Free

Analyzing the Similarities between â€Å"Hymn to the Aton† and â€Å"Psalm 104† Essay The thought that two different works of art written by authors of different countries, different backgrounds, living eight hundred years apart and centering on religion—more [specifically] their portrayal of God and how he is like the sun—[being similar] would [be] deem[ed] [as] impossible [or not likely by many]. [However,] the poems [â€Å"]Hymn to the Aton[† by Akhenaton] and [â€Å"]Psalm 104[† by David are examples of] this very occurrence. [Some scholars assert] that either the latter was copied from the former or that these two works are the result of a cultural split, [due to the] vast difference of [similar] elements [and subject matter that the poems share. ] the poems were fostered within, their similarities in content, and that the poems could not have been creative coincidence. The benefits in understanding that these works have some connection, whether by plagiarism or cultural dissect, provides scholars with more knowledge about the world we live in, helps to decipher some of the myths and mysteries of other cultures with similarities and shows the public all cultures may not be as different from each other as we think, helps to show that propaganda has been used since the earliest of times, and that if societies do not document their findings or creations people will eventually circle back and rediscover them. Collectively, if applied to the modern world, these benefits will advances in many fields of academia and help society at large to become more critical thinkers and problem solvers. [Based on your body paragraphs, I have simplified your thesis map to the following:] [The three clearest similarities of the two poems include their similar discussion of the power of the sun or the notion of the sun as a symbol for the power of God, the similarities of the daily activities of the two cultures and their link to their God, and the emphasis of monotheism.] [Now, provide one or two sentences that explain what current societal issue can be resolved or lessened through the realization of the similarity of these two poems.] The contrast between Hymn to the Aton and Psalm 104 are numerous. Hymn was written by Pharaoh Amenhotep IV around 1300 B.C.E. in order to help support his efforts to convert all of Egypt to monotheism and worship of the Sun, which called Aton. [First, it is uncanny the manner in which both poets use the sun as a point of reference for their God]. In [â€Å"Hymn to the Aton† Akhenaton proclaims] the actual Sun [as] god. â€Å"Thou living Aton the beginning of life!Creator of seed in women, Thou who makes fluid into man, Who maintainest the son in the womb of this mother..† In the psalm, King David writes how God created the sun [to] reflect His greatness. [Provide a quote from â€Å"Psalm 104† that shows David discussing the sun.] â€Å"LORD my God, you are very great; you are clothe with splendor and majesty†¦ But at your rebuke the waters fled, at the sound of your thunder they took flight†. King David’s poem was written about eight hundred years after the hymn and David does not mention much about himself, instead he praises the Lord. â€Å"I will sing to the LORD all my life; I will sing praise to my God as long as I live.† Based on the time and purpose of these poems, they could not have been coincidence, that the poems are similar, there had to have been a purposeful connection between them. [While there are slight variations of how the sun is used, in both poems the writers explain how the sun meets the needs of the people and how that act is a symbol of the greatness and goodness of God.] Understanding this connection helps us to discover more and develop our perception about the world around us. [How so? Explain how it can benefit one group of people to be able to realize similarities with another group of people with whom they have historically seen no connection.] [Next, both poems] list almost identical daily activities in the exact order throughout the works. â€Å"[Provide quotes from both poems.]† Many of these [similarities] seem to be paraphrased and suggest that these writing come from the same source like two eye witness accounts of the same crime. After understanding the differences in the author’s cultures, religions, and time periods these similarities support the claim that the works are connected either by plagiarism or cultural split. This helps [readers] to realize that many cultures may not be as different from one another as [people often] think. [Yes, and how can this realization help our culture or society? What societal issue or problem can be solved or lessened with this realization?] Based upon detailed examination [of] the similarities of the [poems, many scholars assert that the shared elements, especially the support of monotheism, are not] by coincidence. [Provide a quote supporting monotheism from both poems.] Some researchers suggest that Hebrews fleeing from Egypt before the time of Moses, some of them wondered into temples where the hymn was written, and has the walked along the hymn was one songs they sang and it was carried throughout the generations, but not that the psalm is not a plagiarism of the hymn, this only leaves the notion that there was a cultural split. We are not sure at this point how the works are linked, [While scholars disagree on which group influenced the other into embracing monotheism, it is clear that a cultural exchange occurred between the two groups. Thus, this realization of the similarity is another example for scientists and anthropologists showing that cultures have always exchanged ideas. This exchange of ideas becomes even more interesting when we realize that the Jews were enslaved by the Egyptians.] but it could definitely give more light and support to how scientist and anthropologist other academic researchers and make strides in their fields, help us to understand how cultures are linked across the board. [Explain how discovering that these two ancient cultures exchanged ideas can provide a blueprint or inspiration for current cultures and how that blueprint or inspiration can help those cultures solve or lessen a current societal issue.] After deep analysis s of these two poems it is clear that one is either copied from the other or [that there was some mutual exchange of cultural ideas] at some point in history. [Using the two poems to realize this occurrence] helps historians and scientists to make deductions about connections [to] other cultures, [allowing more people to better understand the surrounding world]. [Yes, now explain how society can improve if more people are able to understand and connect to the surrounding world or the people surrounding them

Malaria Mosquito Borne Infectious Disease Biology Essay

Malaria Mosquito Borne Infectious Disease Biology Essay Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by parasites of the genus plasmodium. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito (more than 30 anopheline species), which introduces the parasite via its saliva into the circulatory system, and ultimately to the liver where they mature and reproduce. The disease causes symptoms that typically include fever, chills and headache, which in severe cases can progress to coma or death. Malaria is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions in a broad band around the equator, including much of Sub Saharan Africa, asia and the Americas. There are five species of parasites of the genus Plasmodium that affect humans and of which only 3 species are found in India. These are Plasmodium malariae (Laveran, 1881), Plasmodium vivax (Grassi and Feletti, 1890), Plasmodium falciparum (Welch, 1897), Plasmodium ovale (Stephens, 1922) and Plasmodium knowlesi (Robert Knowels, 1932). Malaria due to P. falciparum is the most deadly, and it predominates in Africa. P. vivax is less dangerous but more widespread, and the other species are found much less frequently. P. knowlesi is the fifth major human malaria parasite (following the division of plasmodium ovale into 2 species). This is an emerging infection that was reported for the first time in humans in 1965 and it accounts for up to 70% of malaria cases in certain areas in South East Asia where it is mostly found. HISTORY Malaria has great impact on social and economic development of humans. Malaria was linked with poisonous vapours of swamps or stagnant water and named by the Italians in the 18th century as Malaria (from the Italian mala bad and aria air). In the fifth century B.C., the greek physician Hippocrates described the clinical manifestations and some of the complications of Malaria. The first major breakthrough in understanding the etiology of the disease was in 1880, when Laveran, a French army surgeon in Algeria, described exflagellated gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum in a fresh blood film from a patient with Malaria. It was only in 1897, that Ronald Ross, a British army surgeon in India, conclusively established the major features of the life cycle of plasmodia by a careful series of experiments in naturally infected sparrows. During the 20th Century, progress was made in vector control technology and in 1955 potent synthetic compound called DDT was found and along with other residual insecticides, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched a worldwide program of malaria eradication. This ambitious program was hindered by the development of DDT resistance among vector and chloroquine resistance in some strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Soon it was accepted by the world that Malaria was here to stay and subsequently in 1978, the World health assembly changed its focus from eradication to control. EPIDEMIOLOGY OF MALARIA Global Scenario Based on documented cases, the WHO estimates that there were 216  million cases of malaria in 2010 resulting in 655,000 deaths. This is equivalent to roughly 2000 deaths every day. A 2012 study estimated the number of documented and undocumented deaths in 2010 as 1.24  million. An estimated 3.3 billion people were at risk of Malaria in 2010, although of all geographical regions, populations living in Sub-Saharan Africa have the highest risk of acquiring Malaria; in 2010, 81% of cases and 91% of deaths are estimated to have occurred in the WHO African region. The majority of cases (65%) occur in children under 15 years of age. Pregnant women are also especially vulnerable: about 125  million pregnant women are at risk of infection each year. In Sub-Saharan Africa, maternal malaria is associated with up to 200,000 estimated infant deaths yearly. There are about 10,000 malaria cases per year in Western Europe, and 1300-1500 in the United States. Both the global incidence of disease and resulting mortality has declined in recent years. According to the WHO, deaths attributable to malaria in 2010 were reduced by over a third from a 2000 estimate of 985,000, largely due to the widespread use of insecticide-treated nets and artemisinin-based combination therapies. Malaria is presently endemic in a broad band around the equator, in areas of the Americas, many parts of Asia, and much of Africa; however, it is in Sub-Saharan Africa where 85-90% of malaria fatalities occur. As of 2010, about 106 countries have endemic malaria. Every year, 125 million international travelers visit these countries, and more than 30,000 contract the disease. The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex, and malaria-afflicted and malaria-free areas are often found close to each other. Malaria is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because of rainfall, consistent high temperatures and high humidity, along with stagnant waters in which mosquito larvae readily mature, providing them with the environment they need for continuous breeding. Regional Scenario Out of the 11 countries of SEAR, 10 are malaria endemic. Maldives has no endogenous transmission since 1984. SEAR accounts for 30% of global morbidity and 8% of global mortality due to malaria. An estimated 82.8% of the total population is at risk and about 2.5 million cases are reported annually in the region. India contributes to more than three-fourths of the total cases in the South East Asian Region. Since 2004, there has been an increasing number of reports of the incidence of P. knowlesi among humans in various countries in South East Asia, including Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, the Philippines, Vietnam, Myanmar and Indonesia. Country Scenario Malaria transmission occurs in almost all areas of India except areas above 1800 meters sea level. Countrys 95% population lives in malaria risk prone areas and 80% of malaria reported in the country is confined to areas consisting 20% of population i.e. residing in tribal, hilly, difficult and inaccessible areas. Directorate of National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP) has framed technical guidelines/ policies and provides most of the resources for the programme. The case load, around 2 million cases annually in the late nineties, has shown a declining trend since 2002. At low levels of surveillance, the Slide Positivity Rate (SPR) may be a better indicator. The SPR has shown gradual decline from 3.32 in 1995 to 1.41 in 2010 (3). The reported Pf cases declined from 1.14 million in 1995 to 0.77 million cases in 2010. However, the Pf % has gradually increased from 39% in 1995 to 52.12% in 2010. Number of reported deaths has been leveling around 1000 per year. Currently, 80.5% of the population of India lives in malaria risk areas. Since 1970s, in India, areas with an API above 2 cases per 1000 population per year have been classified as high risk and thereby eligible for vector control. The current situation of Malaria in India is shown in Fig 6.1. Malaria in India is unevenly distributed with a risk of increase in cases in epidemic forms every 7-10 yrs depending on the immune status of the population, breeding potential of the mosquitoes and the rainfall pattern. In North-East states efficient malaria transmission is maintained during most months of the year. Intermediate level of stability is maintained in the plains of India in the forests and forest fringes, predominantly tribal settlements in 8 states (AP, Gujarat, Jharkhand, MP, Chattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Rajasthan). The largest number of cases in the country is reported in Orissa, followed by Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat and Rajasthan. The largest numbers of deaths are reported in Orissa, followed by West Bengal, Assam, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh Fig 6.2. Annually about 100 million fever cases are being screened by blood smears. There are 3.12 lakh Drug Distribution Centers, 1.17 lakh Fever Treatment Depots and 13 thousand Malaria Clinics functioning in the country. IMPORTANT TIMELINE 1947: At the time of independence, malaria was responsible for an estimated 75 million cases and 0.8 million deaths annually. 1953: National Malaria Control Programme was launched. 1958: With its overwhelming success, GOI launched National Malaria Eradication Programme. 1965-66: Due to concerted implementation of strategies, particularly spraying with DDT, the number of annual cases was successfully brought down to 100,000 and deaths were eliminated. 1971: Since the resurgence of malaria in early 1970s, urban malaria has been recognised as an important problem contributing to overall malaria morbidity in the country. To assist the states in control of malaria in urban areas, Urban Malaria Scheme (UMS) was launched in 1971. The scheme is being implemented in 131 towns in the country. Urban malaria poses problems because of haphazard expansion of urban areas. The urban malaria vector, An. stephensi breeds in stored water and domestic containers. Construction activities and aggregation of labour provide ideal opportunities for vector to breed and transmit malaria in urban areas. 1976: However, in the following years, the Programme faced various technical obstacles as well as financial and administrative constraints, which led to countrywide increase in malaria incidence to 6.47 million cases. 1977: Modified Plan of Operation (MPO) under NMEP was launched as a contingency plan to effectively control malaria by preventing deaths, reducing morbidity so as to improve the health status of the people. With the adoption of the MPO strategy, the total malaria cases decreased significantly. Presently, about 2 million cases are being reported in the country annually, about half of which are P. falciparum cases. 1982: The National Anti-malaria Drug Policy was drafted in 1982 to combat the increasing level of resistance to chloroquine detected in Pf. 1997: The name of the programme was changed to National Anti Malaria Programme. Enhanced Malaria Control Project (EMCP) was launched in April 1997 with the assistance of the World Bank. This is directly benefiting the six crore Tribal Population of the eight peninsular states covering 100 districts and 19 urban areas. 2003: National Vector Borne Diseases Control Programme was envisaged as an umbrella programme for prevention and control of Malaria and other vector borne diseases such as Filariasis, Dengue, Japanese Encephalitis and Kala-azar. 2008: the global malaria action plan (GMAP) was launched by the roll back malaria partnership (RBM) as a blueprint for the control, elimination and eventual eradication of malaria, setting as its objective the reduction of the number of preventable malaria deaths worldwide to near zero by 2015. 2010: The year 2010 was an important milestone on the way to achievement of internationally agreed goals and targets for malaria Control. It was the date set by the World Health Assembly in 2005 to ensure reduction of the malaria burden by at least 50% compared to the levels in 2000. The aim was to make indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINS) available to all people at risk of malaria, and for all public health facilities to be able to provide reliable diagnosis and effective treatment for malaria. 2011: In the light of progress made by 2010, RBM updated the GMAP targets in June 2011. Maintaining an overall vision of a malaria-free world, the targets are now to: (i) reduce global malaria deaths to near zero by end-2015, (ii) reduce global malaria cases by 75% from 2000 levels by end-2015, and (iii) eliminate malaria by end-2015 in 10 new countries since 2008, including in the WHO European Region. These targets will be met by: achieving and sustaining universal access to and utilization of preventive measures; achieving universal access to case management in the public and private sectors and in the areas where public health facilities are able to provide a parasitological test for all suspected malaria cases, near zero malaria deaths is defined as no more than 1 confirmed malaria death per 100,000 population at risk. SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT Malaria affects everyday life of the afflicted persons and is one of the major causes of loss of income and absenteeism in schools. It is thus, directly linked with socio-economic development and referred to as both a disease of poverty and a cause of poverty. Economists believe that malaria is responsible for a growth penalty of up to 1.3 percent per year in some African countries. When compounded over the years, this penalty leads to substantial differences in GDP between countries with and without malaria and severely restrains the economic growth. The direct costs of malaria include a combination of personal and public expenditures on both prevention and treatment of the disease. The indirect costs of malaria include lost productivity or income associated with illness or premature death. Although difficult to express in financial terms, another indirect cost of malaria is the human suffering caused by the disease. J. A. Sinton estimated a loss of Rs.7, 500 million per year to the Indian economy on account of malaria in 1935. The Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad calculated that each rupee spent on the malaria programme since 1953-54 has brought in a benefit of Rs.9.27 to the nation. According to an estimate by MRC-ICMR, Delhi, in 1994, every rupee invested in malaria control produces a direct return of Rs. 22.10. The calculations do not include the hidden but large savings on account of the labour days, which is many times higher than that of the direct savings of an individual. In terms of Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), malaria in India contributes to 1.86 million years. Among the females, DALYs lost were 0.786 million as against 1.074 million in the males. The maximum DALYs lost (53.25%) were in the middle productive ages from 15 to 44 years followed by children 45 years of age. Transmission dynamics of malaria A large number of factors related to Agent, Host, Vector and Environment have a role in determining the transmission dynamics. Host factors Age : All ages are equally affected. Children are usually effective carriers of gametocytes. In areas with high falciparum transmission, newborns will be protected during the first few months of life due to maternal antibodies transferred to them through the placenta. Gender : Gender does not affect the incidence or severity of malaria infection and disease per se, but because they are often related to frequency of exposure (via occupation, social behaviour, and migration). Innate Immunity : Some persons residing in highly malarious areas do not acquire infection. This may be due to innate immunity of the individual. Such immunity is mainly due to antibodies and T-lymphocytes specific for Plasmodium, which result in reduced illness despite infection. Blood group : There are other factors, which determine immunity against malaria. Genetic characteristics of the erythrocytes and presence of haemoglobinopathies usually confer some sort of protection against infection with malaria parasite. Individuals lacking in Duffy blood group antigen are refractory to P.vivax infection. This points to the fact that Duffy coating on the RBC wall may modify receptors in respect of P.vivax merozoites. Haemoglobin HbS sickle cell trait and Haemoglobin C have a protective effect against P.falciparum. Economic Status : Economic status is inversely related to incidence of malaria mainly because of poor housing. Ill ventilated and poorly lighted houses provide ideal resting places for mosquitoes. Migration : Large scale migration of population from one part of the country for sowing, transplanting and harvesting of crops results in spread of malaria. Tropical aggregation of labour is associated with malaria. The labour migrating from malarious to non-malarious areas bring immune and non-immune population together coupled with local and imported parasite reservoir at the site of temporary camps. Focal outbreaks can be explosive in such situations. They also bring different strains of malaria parasite to the project site including drug resistant strains. Environmental factors Weather: There are seasonal variations in mosquito density, resting, feeding and biting habits, longevity and flight capabilities. Malaria is therefore, seasonal in most parts of the country. In most of the states the maximum transmission is during the period July to November. Temperature and Humidity : Optimal conditions for malaria transmission occur when the temperature is between 20 °C and 30 °C and the mean relative humidity is at least 60%. Sporogony does not occur at temperatures below 16 °C or at temperatures higher than 33 °C. Water temperatures regulate the duration of the aquatic breeding cycle of the mosquito vector. A high relative humidity increases mosquito longevity and therefore increases the probability that an infected mosquito will survive long enough to become infective. The forest cover of an area keeps humidity levels at high level resulting in long survival of all vector mosquitoes. Altitude : Transmission decreases with increasing altitude and as a rule and it stops above the heights of 2000 m. Man made malaria : Construction of roads, railways, irrigation works, dams and barrages, deforestation and other engineering projects have resulted in creation of mosquito breeding place in many new areas. The proximity of human habitation to breeding sites directly influences vector human contact and, therefore, transmission. Agriculture and irrigation have an intricate role in malaria transmission. In areas where irrigation channels are not properly maintained, high vector mosquito density is observed. Temporary hutments in agriculture fields result in increased exposure to mosquitoes. Wells, overhead tanks, ornamental tanks, roof gutters, water storage containers, construction sites, room coolers, valve chambers etc. are important breeding places for A.stephensi. Use of disposable cups, bottles and other items, which can collect water, increase the risks of mosquito breeding. The slums within the town and its periphery are the worst affected areas because of lack of water managem ent and appropriate anti-larval operations. Agent factors Genus : The disease is caused by the haemoparasites of genus Plasmodium, family Plasmodiidae, suborder Haemosporidiidae, order Coccidia. Life cycle : The life cycle of the plasmodium occurs in two stages, the sexual cycle (sporogony) in the mosquitoes and asexual cycle (schizogony) in the human host. Within the vertebrate host, schizogony is found both within erythrocytes (erythrocytic schizogony) and in other tissues (exo erythrocytic schizogony). The development of asexual cycle in man, its duration and course of infection are determined by the genetic composition of the malaria parasite. Sporozoites (microscopic, motile forms of malarial parasite) are released into blood of the human host from the saliva of infected female mosquito when it bites him/ her. Within minutes, these attach to and invade liver cells by binding to hepatocyte receptor for the serum proteins thrombospondin and properdin. The sporozoites multiply in the hepatocytes and get released in batches from them in form of merozoites, which are the asexual, haploid forms. The human red blood cells contain sialic acid residues on the glycophorin molecules attached to their surface. The plasmodium merozoites attach to these sialic acid residues by a parasite lectin like molecule. In the RBCs, the parasites grow in a membrane bound digestive vacuole, hydrolyzing hemoglobin through secreting enzymes. This stage is called the trophozoite and contains a single chromatin mass. The next stage is the schizont (erythrocytic schizont) with multiple chromatin masses, each of which develops into a fresh merozoite. The schizont forms after about 48 hr of intra-erythrocytic life (72 hr for P. malariae) and is characterized by consumption of almost all the hemoglobin and occupation of most of the RBC cavity. The RBC ruptures and a new batch of merozoite is released from it, which infects other RBCs. This cycle repeats itself till the host immune mechanisms come into play. Some schizonts mature into sexual forms called the gametocytes that infect the mosquitoes when they take their blood meal. During the hepatic phase, a proportion of sporozoites do not devide but remain dormant for a period ranging from 3 weeks to a year longer before reproduction. These dormant forms are called hypnozoites and are the cause of relapses that occur in P. vivax and P. ovale. After being ingested in the blood meal of the biting female mosquito, the male and female gametocytes form a zygote in the insects gut wass. The resulting oocyst expands by asexual division until it bursts to release a myriad of motile sporozoites, which then migrate in the hemolymph to the salivary gland of the mosquito to await inoculation into other human at the next feeding episode. Parasite load : The parasite load and the gametocyte production are influenced by development of immunity in human host. The difference in parasitaemia levels observed in P.vivax and P.falcipatum are attributed to the fact that P.vivax tends to invade younger RBCs while the P.falciparum invades all RBCs irrespective of their age. Reservoir : The source of infection is a malaria case with adequate number of mature viable gametocytes circulating in the blood. It has been estimated that in order to infect a mosquito, the blood of a human carrier must contain at least 12 gametocytes per mm3 and the number of female gametocytes must be more than the male gametocytes. The human case of malaria becomes infective to mosquito when mature, viable gametocytes develop in the blood of the patient in sufficient density. Bionomics of malaria vectors There are many species of anopheline mosquitoes in India but only 6 are regarded as primary vectors and another 3 or 4 as secondary or local vectors. The following characteristics of vector mosquitoes play an important role in the epidemiology of malaria. Breeding Habits : The breeding habits of mosquitoes show a lot of variation. Hence, vector mosquitoes tend to be confined to certain geographical areas only. Anopheles sundaicus prefers to breed in brackish waters. The main urban vector Anopheles stephensi commonly breeds in wells, cisterns and over head tanks. Tanks, pools, burrow pits and ditches are the preferred breeding spots for Anopheles annularis and Anopheles philippinensis while Anopheles dirus is usually found breeding in forest pools, streams and slit trenches. A.culicifacies is the major vector of rural malaria. It breeds in different ground water collections. During the rainy season, breeding places are numerous. Hence the density is at its peak in the rainy season. The other major vectors are A.minimus and A.fluviatilis. They breed in running channels with clear water. Therefore the densities reach the peak after the monsoon season when streams and channels have slow moving clear water. Density : For effective transmission of malaria in a locality, the mosquito vector must attain and maintain a certain density. This is called critical density and it varies from one mosquito to another and also under different environmental conditions. Anopheles culicifacies needs a very high density for transmission of malaria. Longevity : A mosquito, after an infective blood meal, must live for at least 10 days to complete the development of malaria parasites. Tropism : Some mosquitoes like Anopheles fluviatilis, Anopheles minimus prefer human blood and are called anthropophilic. Others like Anopheles culicifacies preferably feed on animal blood and are called zoophilic. When the densities are high or when the man cattle ratio is higher, they feed on humans too. This preferential feeding habit is called tropism. It has obvious bearing on the transmission of malaria. Biting and resting behaviour : Some vector mosquitoes bite at or soon after dusk, others either during late night or early hours of the morning. However, some species may be active at two different periods during the same night. Control strategies should consider such habits of mosquitoes. Use of impregnated bed nets would definitely be more effective when there are late biters in that area. A female mosquito rests either indoors (endophilic) or outdoors (exophilic) after a blood meal for maturation of its eggs. The common resting places are either human dwellings, cattle sheds or mixed dwellings. Flight Range : The distribution and dispersal of vector species depend upon their flight range. This is important for tracing the source and planning control measures. Some have a short flight range e.g. Anopheles dirus, Anopheles annularis and Anopheles fluviatilis. The species with flight range upto Two km distance are Anopheles culicifacies and Anopheles stephensi. Anopheles sundaicus may fly upto 8 or 10 km. MODE OF TRANSMISSION The most prevalent mode of Transmission of malaria is through the bite of the infected Female anopheles mosquito. The mosquito is infective only if the sporozoites are present in its salivary glands. However, malaria can also be transmitted by intravenous or intramuscular Injection of infected blood or plasma in an otherwise healthy person. The parasite can stay alive for nearly two weeks at 4 °c in bottled blood. Rarely transmission can also occur from Infected mother to the newborn. Malaria SURVEILLANCE Malaria surveillance connotes the maintenance of an on-going watch/ vigil over the status of malaria in a group or community. The main purpose of surveillance is to detect changes in trends or distribution in malaria in order to initiate investigative or control measures. 1. Fortnightly Domiciliary visits The active case detection is carried out by multipurpose health workers (male) under primary health care system by conducting active case detection every fortnight by making domiciliary visits. Technical justification for a fortnightly blood smear collection is based on transmission dynamics of malaria. The incubation interval in case of P.vivax is approximately 22 days while for P.falciparum it is 35 days. Thus, surveillance cycle of less than one incubation interval will catch most of the secondary cases before the commencement of next cycle. 2. Fever Treatment Depots (FTDs) Fever Treatment Depots are established in remote villages. The FTD holder is given training for one or two days at the PHC in the collection of blood smears, administration of presumptive treatment, impregnation of bed nets, promotion of larvivorous fish, etc. 3. Passive Case Detection (PCD) All Allopathic, Ayurvedic, Homeopathic, Siddha medicine dispensaries in the health sector are identified and involved in passive case detection. All the fever cases attending the hospital should be screened for malaria and given presumptive treatment. 4. Rapid Fever Survey In case of an epidemic outbreak, every house of the village in the suspected epidemic zone is visited and all fever cases are screened by taking blood smears. 5. Mass survey As an alternative to Rapid Fever Survey, if possible mass survey of the entire population may be carried out in the suspected epidemic zone. Here all the population irrespective of age, sex or fever status is screened by taking blood smear. 6. Drug Distribution Centre (DDC) If it is not possible to have FTD, the medical officer should establish DDC. The functions of DDCs are the same as those of FTDs, except that the DDCs do not take blood slides but administer drugs to fever cases. 7. Annual blood smears examination rate and its validity All fever cases occurring in the community are examined for malaria parasite, and then the total malaria parasite load is examined. The monthly blood examination rate (MBER) norms are 0.8 percent during non-transmission season and 1.2 to 1.8 percent during transmission season were laid down in the Indian Malaria Eradication Programme. ABER = No. of blood smears collected during the year x 100 Population covered under surveillance MBER = No. of blood smears collected during the month x 100 Population covered under surveillance ABER/ MBER is an index of operational efficacy of the programme. The Annual Parasite Incidence (API) depends upon the ABER. A sufficient number of blood slides should be systematically obtained and examined for malaria parasite to work out accurate API. 8. Slide Positivity Rate (SPR) The Slide Positivity Rate among the blood smears collected through both active and passive surveillance gives more accurate information on distribution of malaria infection in the community over a period of time. Trends in SPR can be utilized for predicting epidemic situations in the area. If monthly SPR exceeds by 2  ½ times of the standard deviation observed in SPR of the preceding 3 years or preceding 3 months of the same year, an epidemic build up in the area can be suspected. SPR : No. of blood smears found positive for malaria parasite X 100 No. of blood smears examined 9. Annual Parasite Incidence (API) This parameter measures the incidence of malaria. It is calculated as: API = No. blood smears found positive for malaria parasite x 1000 Total population under surveillance API can be utilized for assessing the malaria endemicity in the area and impact of control operations. The level of API determines whether spray should be taken up in any area. In only those areas with API more than 2, regular rounds of spray would be planned. API calcualtes incidence of malaria and based on this, areas are divided into high low risk zones. 10. P. falciparum Percentage This is calculated as: P.f % = No. blood smears found positive for P.falciparum x 100   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   No. blood smears found positive for malaria parasite Pf % is required to find out prevalence of P.falciparum infection, which can cause severe manifestations of malaria including death. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY P.vivax, P. ovale and P. malariae cause low level parasitemia, mild anaemia and in rare instances, splenic rupture and nephritic syndrome. P. Falciparum on the other hand usually cause high levels of parasitemis, severe anaemia, cerebral symptoms, renal failure, pulmonary edema and even death. Pathophysiology of malaria results from destruction of erythrocytes, the liberation of parasite and erythrocyte (Cytokines, Nitric Oxide etc) material into the circulation, and the host reaction to these events. P. falciparum malaria differs from the other human species of malaria parasite because infected erythrocytes also sequester in the microcirculation of vital organs, interfering with micro circulatory flow and host tissue metabolism, which results in severe organ damage. The P. falciparums greater pathogenicity is due to the following reasons: (a) It is able to infect red cells of any age and maturity, leading to high parasite burden and profound anaemia. (compared to that caused by other species which infect only the young or very old RBCs) (b) P. falciparum causes infected RBCs to clump together (forming rosettes) and to stick to the vascular endothelium (sequestration) blocking the blood flow. Ischemia due to poor perfusi